Teaching Returnees in University English Classes

by Robert I. Tobin, Keio University, Hiyoshi

日本の多くの大学では、海外で中等教育を受けたものを受け入れている。一般に帰国子女は、英語を話す力が通常の日本人大学生より優れているが、海外で過ごした期間、文化変容の程度、社会的および行動的特性、英語のレベル、帰国の理由などに関してかなりの相違がみられる。この記事では、帰国子女間の違い、彼らが日本の大学教員に与える可能性と困難、文化的応と逆カルチャー・ショックの原理に通じていることの重要性が議論される。帰国子女のいるクラスで用いることができる手法や活動についても具体的に示される。

With an increasing number of Japanese families having lived and worked outside Japan, many university classes have students who have lived and studied in English-speaking countries. Referred to as kikokushijo or returnee students, many have developed a high level of English competency.

The term “returnee students” obscures the considerable diversity which exists within this group. In his study of returnee students, Goodman (1990) discusses how “all kikokushijo tend to be perceived in Japan as if they had spent 15 years in the U.S. and speak only a few words of Japanese” (p.212). However, returnee students differ considerably in terms of their English language skill and degree of acculturation tot heir former host country.

Not all universities enroll returnee students, but sopme haqve created special tracks for admission without the regular entrance examinations. As reported by Bortoff in 1992, “the movement to liberalize returnee entrance qualifications was started in 1978 by Tsukuba University and now is provided by some 75 public and 125 private universities” (p.18). Some university language classes have a high percentage of returnee students, with substantial impact on their non-returnee classmates and the university teacher.

The university teacher may thus be faced with the challenge of teaching students with a wide range of skill levels, backgrounds, and educational needs. The teacher needs to:

recognize the diversity which exists behind the label of “returnee”

understand the challenges facing these students;

identify the impact on the classroom environment and on teachers;

develop effective classroom strategies.

This paper attempts to address these needs and is based upon the experience of the author, interviews with eight university teachers who have returnee students in their classes, and responses of returnee and other advanced level students on a questionnaire. All the teachers interviewed taught classes which included returnee and non-returnee students in the same classroom, and the findings discussed in this paper refer to such classes.

The term “returnee students” will refer to students who have lived overseas for more than one year at the high school level. The term will not be used to refer to students who have been overseas as part of a shorter stay or who had lived overseas only at an earlier stage.

Differences Among Returnee Students

Students differ in recency and length of overseas experience, in the countries they have lived, types of schools attended, English language skill level, and reasons for returning to Japan. Students also differ in terms of their personal support system. Some students return to Japan without their families, while others may live with family members who could be facing their own problems of re-adjustment to life in Japan.

Students also exhibit a variety of acculturation attitudes (Berry, 1990, p.243)---the degree to which they wish to maintain their prior cultural identity, language and way of life. One teacher interviewed noted that “the dominant culture is strong here and the student learns very quickly that they are better off blending in.” Some students may therefore speak English with an affected Japanese accent in order to prevent a negative reaction from non-returnee classmates. Other returnee students stay separate from their classmates and are reluctant to adapt to life in Japan.

Issues for the Teacher of Returnees

Understanding Cultural Adaptation

Familiarity with some principles of cross-cultural adaptation can assist teachers to understand their returnee students, and to design appropriate classroom activities. Kenneth Cushner (1990), suggests two ways this might be done:

First, the focus of the content can be broadened to include cultural content and consideration be given to those subtle aspects of culture which affect learning. (p.102)

The concept of culture shock is probably one of the most familiar in cross-cultural psychology. As described by Cushner (1990, p.101), culture shock implies a disorientation that occurs whenever an individual moves from his/her own immediate, know, surroundings to an environment that is substantially different. Berry (1990, p.246) notes that stress behaviors such as confusion, anxiety, depression, feelings of marginality and heightened alientation, hostility, uncertainty, and identity confusion may result.

The shock which people experience when returning to the country which was originally “home” is often underestimated. This “reverse culture shock” (Martin, 1984) may be deeper than culture shock in a foreign country because it is not expected, and has less prior preparation and social support. One teacher commented that some hostility may be directed towards the teacher who “may bea constant reminder of the student’s own foreign-news.... Sometimes the student lashes out at the foreign person.”

Adjustment to life overseas may have been easier than re-adjustment to Japan. According to Merry White (1988), “a very small number of parents reported that their children had persistent difficulties in adjusting to overseas life” (p.64). However, for returning students, White writes: “fitting into a society in which an outside experience is at best irrelevant and at worst stigmatizing is most difficult.... Children are under strong pressure from the community to be normal”(p.65).

White wrote about elementary and secondary school students, but there is also pressure on university students to adjust to life in Japan, and to become proficient in kanji. Often returnee students must deal with issues of identity as well. Questions such as: “Am I Japanese or American?,” and “Why am I always seen as different?,” are questions students have raised in class. Students are sometimes asked by their non-returnee classmates if they are really Japanese because of their “different” viewpoint or length of time overseas. The non-Japanese teacher may even be asked by students to explain Japanese customs and views on social issues.

Change In Teacher’s Status and Role

It is likely that returnee students have had more recent and intensive overseas experience than their teachers. The returnee student’s knowledge of current language and cultural trends may be in balance with that of the teacher. Thus, one of the bases for the teacher’s expertise and influence is diminished. A challenge for the teacher si to find new sources of expertise, either in classroom techniques or content areas. Teaching returnee students often requires a shirt to utilizing or developing different teaching skills.

The Teacher’s Culture Shock

In teaching returnee students, the teacher may confront his or her own culture shock. After years of teaching in Japan, and increasing familiarity with student classroom behavior and expectations, the instructor may be uncomfortable with the habits and characteristics of some returnee students.

Understanding Competing Demands for Student Time

Students may not see English as a high priority since they already possess a higher level of English skill than most Japanese. Students may rank adjusting to life in Japan, improving their Japanese and developing skills in other languages, as much higher priorities.

Need for Student Assessment

Because some students speak English fluently, the instructor may incorrectly assume that this proficiency extends to all language areas. In my own classes, students have shown the greatest weakness in writing. A comprehensive student assessment is recommended to determine competence in the different language skill areas.

Suggestions for Classroom Activities

A recent article by Noguchi (1995) suggests separate classes for returnee students, but in my opinion separate classes interfere with students’ re-integration into Japanese life. Even if returnee students are in separate classes, the teacher must recognize the diversity within the group and must adope ntew approaches, such as focusing on content areas.

Whether in separate or integrated classes, teaching returnee students requires flexibility, a variety of techniques, and a student-centered individualized approach. The teacher must utilize activities which permit students to progress at their own rate, which do not allow one group (such as the most skilled) to dominate, and which validate the experience of all students, including those who have not lived overseas. Several strategies which can be used in classes which include returnee students are briefly described below.

Discussion of Cultural Experience

Intercultural communication is one obvious choice for class content. Returnee students often do not have a chance to talk about their overseas experience but can talk more freely in classes which include other returnee students. One successful activity for freshmen has been for students to interview each other and write about another student’s life. When non-returnee students are in the class, returnee students have an opportunity to learn about their classmates’ lives and schooling in Japan.

Interviews

In my classes, students interview foreign managers working in Japan. This allows them to learn about differences in working in another culture, and gives another perspective to their own overseas experience or that of their classmates. Organizations such as the American Chamber of Commerce in Japn have been very helpful in identifying managers willing to be interviewed. Said one student:

Interviewing a manager... was good to broaden my views. The university is a limited world, so that talking to some3body who doesn’t belong to a university is interesting and stimulating.

Focus on Japan

An opportunity to learn about Japan is also well-received by many returnee students. Non-returnee students can assist by explaining customs and identifying resources. All students benefit from research projects on Japanese culture, television, films, and projects on Japanese culture, television, films, and social issues. In describing her first year back in Japan, one student wrote about the joy of learning about a culture she thought she had no interest in.

Journals

Several teachers reported success with students keeping personal journals as a way of maintaininhg their English skills and in helping with the transition to Japanese university life. Regarding the journal, one student wrote:

These days there isn’t much time for us to express our deep feelings. I myself could write whatever came up to my mind on paper even when I couldn’t say it out loud.

Conclusion

The increasing number of English-speaking returnee students provides many challenges and opportunities for the university teacher. Understanding cross-culture adaptation and utilizing a variety of teaching approaches can yield very positive results for all students and the teacher as well.

References

Berry, J. (1990). Psychology of acculturation. In R. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 232-254). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Bortoff, D. (1992, February 27). Back from overseas, returnees don’t always receive a hearty welcome. Japan Times, p.18.

Cushner, K. (1990). Cross-cultural psychology and the formal classroom. In R. Brislin (Ed.), Applied cross-cultural psychology (pp. 98-120). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Goodman, R. H. (1990). Japan’s international youth. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Martin, J. N. (1994). Intercultural entry. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2, 141-159.

Noguchi, M. G. (1995). Special English classes for returnees. The Language Teacher, 19(5), 31-34.

White, M. (1988). The Japanese overseas: Can they go home again? New York: Free Press.